The examples shown in Using Perspective Broker demonstrate how to do basic remote method calls, but provided no facilities for authentication. In this context, authentication is about who gets which remote references, and how to restrict access to the “right” set of people or programs.
As soon as you have a program which offers services to multiple users, where those users should not be allowed to interfere with each other, you need to think about authentication. Many services use the idea of an “account” , and rely upon fact that each user has access to only one account. Twisted uses a system called cred to handle authentication issues, and Perspective Broker has code to make it easy to implement the most common use cases.
Imagine how you would write a chat server using PB. The first step might be a ChatServer object which had a bunch of pb.RemoteReference s that point at user clients. Pretend that those clients offered a remote_print method which lets the server print a message on the user’s console. In that case, the server might look something like this:
class ChatServer(pb.Referenceable):
def __init__(self):
self.groups = {} # indexed by name
self.users = {} # indexed by name
def remote_joinGroup(self, username, groupname):
if not self.groups.has_key(groupname):
self.groups[groupname] = []
self.groups[groupname].append(self.users[username])
def remote_sendMessage(self, from_username, groupname, message):
group = self.groups[groupname]
if group:
# send the message to all members of the group
for user in group:
user.callRemote("print",
"<%s> says: %s" % (from_username,
message))
For now, assume that all clients have somehow acquired a pb.RemoteReference to this ChatServer object, perhaps using pb.Root and getRootObject as described in the previous chapter . In this scheme, when a user sends a message to the group, their client runs something like the following:
remotegroup.callRemote("sendMessage", "alice", "Hi, my name is alice.")
You’ve probably seen the first problem: users can trivially spoof each other. We depend upon the user to pass a correct value in their “username” argument, and have no way to tell if they’re lying or not. There is nothing to prevent Alice from modifying her client to do:
remotegroup.callRemote("sendMessage", "bob", "i like pork")
much to the horror of Bob’s vegetarian friends. [1]
(In general, learn to get suspicious if you see any argument of a remotely-invokable method described as “must be X” )
The best way to fix this is to keep track of the user’s name locally, rather than asking them to send it to the server with each message. The best place to keep state is in an object, so this suggests we need a per-user object. Rather than choosing an obvious name [2] , let’s call this the User class.
class User(pb.Referenceable):
def __init__(self, username, server, clientref):
self.name = username
self.server = server
self.remote = clientref
def remote_joinGroup(self, groupname):
self.server.joinGroup(groupname, self)
def remote_sendMessage(self, groupname, message):
self.server.sendMessage(self.name, groupname, message)
def send(self, message):
self.remote.callRemote("print", message)
class ChatServer:
def __init__(self):
self.groups = {} # indexed by name
def joinGroup(self, groupname, user):
if not self.groups.has_key(groupname):
self.groups[groupname] = []
self.groups[groupname].append(user)
def sendMessage(self, from_username, groupname, message):
group = self.groups[groupname]
if group:
# send the message to all members of the group
for user in group:
user.send("<%s> says: %s" % (from_username, message))
Again, assume that each remote client gets access to a single User object, which is created with the proper username.
Note how the ChatServer object has no remote access: it isn’t even pb.Referenceable anymore. This means that all access to it must be mediated through other objects, with code that is under your control.
As long as Alice only has access to her own User object, she can no longer spoof Bob. The only way for her to invoke ChatServer.sendMessage is to call her User object’s remote_sendMessage method, and that method uses its own state to provide the from_username argument. It doesn’t give her any way to change that state.
This restriction is important. The User object is able to maintain its own integrity because there is a wall between the object and the client: the client cannot inspect or modify internal state, like the .name attribute. The only way through this wall is via remote method invocations, and the only control Alice has over those invocations is when they get invoked and what arguments they are given.
Note
No object can maintain its integrity against local threats: by design, Python offers no mechanism for class instances to hide their attributes, and once an intruder has a copy of self.__dict__ , they can do everything the original object was able to do.
Now suppose you wanted to implement group parameters, for example a mode in which nobody was allowed to talk about mattresses because some users were sensitive and calming them down after someone said “mattress” is a hassle that’s best avoided altogether. Again, per-group state implies a per-group object. We’ll go out on a limb and call this the Group object:
class User(pb.Referenceable):
def __init__(self, username, server, clientref):
self.name = username
self.server = server
self.remote = clientref
def remote_joinGroup(self, groupname, allowMattress=True):
return self.server.joinGroup(groupname, self, allowMattress)
def send(self, message):
self.remote.callRemote("print", message)
class Group(pb.Referenceable):
def __init__(self, groupname, allowMattress):
self.name = groupname
self.allowMattress = allowMattress
self.users = []
def remote_send(self, from_user, message):
if not self.allowMattress and "mattress" in message:
raise ValueError, "Don't say that word"
for user in self.users:
user.send("<%s> says: %s" % (from_user.name, message))
def addUser(self, user):
self.users.append(user)
class ChatServer:
def __init__(self):
self.groups = {} # indexed by name
def joinGroup(self, groupname, user, allowMattress):
if groupname not in self.groups:
self.groups[groupname] = Group(groupname, allowMattress)
self.groups[groupname].addUser(user)
return self.groups[groupname]
This example takes advantage of the fact that pb.Referenceable objects sent over a wire can be returned to you, and they will be turned into references to the same object that you originally sent. The client cannot modify the object in any way: all they can do is point at it and invoke its remote_* methods. Thus, you can be sure that the .name attribute remains the same as you left it. In this case, the client code would look something like this:
class ClientThing(pb.Referenceable):
def remote_print(self, message):
print message
def join(self):
d = self.remoteUser.callRemote("joinGroup", "#twisted",
allowMattress=False)
d.addCallback(self.gotGroup)
def gotGroup(self, group):
group.callRemote("send", self.remoteUser, "hi everybody")
The User object is sent from the server side, and is turned into a pb.RemoteReference when it arrives at the client. The client sends it back to Group.remote_send , and PB turns it back into a reference to the original User when it gets there. Group.remote_send can then use its .name attribute as the sender of the message.
Note
Third party references (there aren’t any)
This technique also relies upon the fact that the pb.Referenceable reference can only come from someone who holds a corresponding pb.RemoteReference . The design of the serialization mechanism (implemented in twisted.spread.jelly : pb, jelly, spread.. get it? Look for “banana” , too. What other networking framework can claim API names based on sandwich ingredients?) makes it impossible for a client to obtain a reference that they weren’t explicitly given. References passed over the wire are given id numbers and recorded in a per-connection dictionary. If you didn’t give them the reference, the id number won’t be in the dict, and no amount of guessing by a malicious client will give them anything else. The dict goes away when the connection is dropped, further limiting the scope of those references.
Furthermore, it is not possible for Bob to send his User reference to Alice (perhaps over some other PB channel just between the two of them). Outside the context of Bob’s connection to the server, that reference is just a meaningless number. To prevent confusion, PB will tell you if you try to give it away: when you try to hand a pb.RemoteReference to a third party, you’ll get an exception (implemented with an assert in pb.py:364 RemoteReference.jellyFor).
This helps the security model somewhat: only the client you gave the reference to can cause any damage with it. Of course, the client might be a brainless zombie, simply doing anything some third party wants. When it’s not proxying callRemote invocations, it’s probably terrorizing the living and searching out human brains for sustenance. In short, if you don’t trust them, don’t give them that reference.
And remember that everything you’ve ever given them over that connection can come back to you. If expect the client to invoke your method with some object A that you sent to them earlier, and instead they send you object B (that you also sent to them earlier), and you don’t check it somehow, then you’ve just opened up a security hole (we’ll see an example of this shortly). It may be better to keep such objects in a dictionary on the server side, and have the client send you an index string instead. Doing it that way makes it obvious that they can send you anything they want, and improves the chances that you’ll remember to implement the right checks. (This is exactly what PB is doing underneath, with a per-connection dictionary of Referenceable objects, indexed by a number).
And, of course, you have to make sure you don’t accidentally hand out a reference to the wrong object.
But again, note the vulnerability. If Alice holds a RemoteReference to any object on the server side that has a .name attribute, she can use that name as a spoofed”from” parameter. As a simple example, what if her client code looked like:
class ClientThing(pb.Referenceable):
def join(self):
d = self.remoteUser.callRemote("joinGroup", "#twisted")
d.addCallback(self.gotGroup)
def gotGroup(self, group):
group.callRemote("send", from_user=group, "hi everybody")
This would let her send a message that appeared to come from “#twisted” rather than “Alice” . If she joined a group that happened to be named “bob” (perhaps it is the “How To Be Bob” channel, populated by Alice and countless others, a place where they can share stories about their best impersonating-Bob moments), then she would be able to emit a message that looked like “<bob> says: hi there” , and she has accomplished her lifelong goal.
There are two techniques to close this hole. The first is to have your remotely-invokable methods do type-checking on their arguments: if Group.remote_send asserted isinstance(from_user, User) then Alice couldn’t use non-User objects to do her spoofing, and hopefully the rest of the system is designed well enough to prevent her from obtaining access to somebody else’s User object.
The second technique is to avoid having the client send you the objects altogether. If they don’t send you anything, there is nothing to verify. In this case, you would have to have a per-user-per-group object, in which the remote_send method would only take a single message argument. The UserGroup object is created with references to the only User and Group objects that it will ever use, so no lookups are needed:
class UserGroup(pb.Referenceable):
def __init__(self, user, group):
self.user = user
self.group = group
def remote_send(self, message):
self.group.send(self.user.name, message)
class Group:
def __init__(self, groupname, allowMattress):
self.name = groupname
self.allowMattress = allowMattress
self.users = []
def send(self, from_user, message):
if not self.allowMattress and "mattress" in message:
raise ValueError, "Don't say that word"
for user in self.users:
user.send("<%s> says: %s" % (from_user.name, message))
def addUser(self, user):
self.users.append(user)
The only message-sending method Alice has left is UserGroup.remote_send , and it only accepts a message: there are no remaining ways to influence the “from” name.
In this model, each remotely-accessible object represents a very small set of capabilities. Security is achieved by only granting a minimal set of abilities to each remote user.
PB provides a shortcut which makes this technique easier to use. The Viewable class will be discussed below .
In Twisted’s cred system, an “Avatar” is an object that lives on the “server” side (defined here as the side farthest from the human who is trying to get something done) which lets the remote user get something done. The avatar isn’t really a particular class, it’s more like a description of a role that some object plays, as in “the Foo object here is acting as the user’s avatar for this particular service” . Generally, the remote user has some way of getting their avatar to run some code. The avatar object may enforce some security checks, and provide additional data, then call other methods which get things done.
The two pieces in the cred puzzle (for any protocol, not just PB) are: “what serves as the Avatar?” , and “how does the user get access to it?” .
For PB, the first question is easy. The Avatar is a remotely-accessible object which can run code: this is a perfect description of pb.Referenceable and its subclasses. We shall defer the second question until the next section.
In the example above, you can think of the ChatServer and Group objects as a service. The User object is the user’s server-side representative: everything the user is capable of doing is done by running one of its methods. Anything that the server wants to do to the user (change their group membership, change their name, delete their pet cat, whatever) is done by manipulating the User object.
There are multiple User objects living in peace and harmony around the ChatServer. Each has a different point of view on the services provided by the ChatServer and the Groups: each may belong to different groups, some might have more permissions than others (like the ability to create groups). These different points of view are called “Perspectives” . This is the origin of the term “Perspective” in “Perspective Broker” : PB provides and controls (i.e. “brokers” ) access to Perspectives.
Once upon a time, these local-representative objects were actually called pb.Perspective . But this has changed with the advent of the rewritten cred system, and now the more generic term for a local representative object is an Avatar. But you will still see reference to “Perspective” in the code, the docs, and the module names [3] . Just remember that perspectives and avatars are basically the same thing.
Despite all we’ve been telling you about how Avatars are more of a concept than an actual class, the base class from which you can create your server-side avatar-ish objects is, in fact, named pb.Avatar [4] . These objects behave very much like pb.Referenceable . The only difference is that instead of offering “remote_FOO” methods, they offer “perspective_FOO” methods.
The other way in which pb.Avatar differs from pb.Referenceable is that the avatar objects are designed to be the first thing retrieved by a cred-using remote client. Just as PBClientFactory.getRootObject gives the client access to a pb.Root object (which can then provide access to all kinds of other objects), PBClientFactory.login gives client access to a pb.Avatar object (which can return other references).
So, the first half of using cred in your PB application is to create an Avatar object which implements perspective_ methods and is careful to do useful things for the remote user while remaining vigilant against being tricked with unexpected argument values. It must also be careful to never give access to objects that the user should not have access to, whether by returning them directly, returning objects which contain them, or returning objects which can be asked (remotely) to provide them.
The second half is how the user gets a pb.RemoteReference to your Avatar. As explained elsewhere , Avatars are obtained from a Realm. The Realm doesn’t deal with authentication at all (usernames, passwords, public keys, challenge-response systems, retinal scanners, real-time DNA sequencers, etc). It simply takes an “avatarID” (which is effectively a username) and returns an Avatar object. The Portal and its Checkers deal with authenticating the user: by the time they are done, the remote user has proved their right to access the avatarID that is given to the Realm, so the Realm can return a remotely-controllable object that has whatever powers you wish to grant to this particular user.
For PB, the realm is expected to return a pb.Avatar (or anything which implements pb.IPerspective , really, but there’s no reason to not return a pb.Avatar subclass). This object will be given to the client just like a pb.Root would be without cred, and the user can get access to other objects through it (if you let them).
The basic idea is that there is a separate IPerspective-implementing object (i.e. the Avatar subclass) (i.e. the “perspective” ) for each user, and only the authorized user gets a remote reference to that object. You can store whatever permissions or capabilities the user possesses in that object, and then use them when the user invokes a remote method. You give the user access to the perspective object instead of the objects that do the real work.
Here is a brief example of using a pb.Avatar. Most of the support code is magic for now: we’ll explain it later.
#!/usr/bin/env python
# Copyright (c) Twisted Matrix Laboratories.
# See LICENSE for details.
from zope.interface import implements
from twisted.spread import pb
from twisted.cred import checkers, portal
from twisted.internet import reactor
class MyPerspective(pb.Avatar):
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def perspective_foo(self, arg):
print "I am", self.name, "perspective_foo(",arg,") called on", self
class MyRealm:
implements(portal.IRealm)
def requestAvatar(self, avatarId, mind, *interfaces):
if pb.IPerspective not in interfaces:
raise NotImplementedError
return pb.IPerspective, MyPerspective(avatarId), lambda:None
p = portal.Portal(MyRealm())
p.registerChecker(
checkers.InMemoryUsernamePasswordDatabaseDontUse(user1="pass1"))
reactor.listenTCP(8800, pb.PBServerFactory(p))
reactor.run()
#!/usr/bin/env python
# Copyright (c) Twisted Matrix Laboratories.
# See LICENSE for details.
from twisted.spread import pb
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.cred import credentials
def main():
factory = pb.PBClientFactory()
reactor.connectTCP("localhost", 8800, factory)
def1 = factory.login(credentials.UsernamePassword("user1", "pass1"))
def1.addCallback(connected)
reactor.run()
def connected(perspective):
print "got perspective ref:", perspective
print "asking it to foo(12)"
perspective.callRemote("foo", 12)
main()
Ok, so that wasn’t really very exciting. It doesn’t accomplish much more than the first PB example, and used a lot more code to do it. Let’s try it again with two users this time.
Note
When the client runs login to request the Perspective, they can provide it with an optional client argument (which must be a pb.Referenceable object). If they do, then a reference to that object will be handed to the realm’s requestAvatar in the mind argument.
The server-side Perspective can use it to invoke remote methods on something in the client, so that the client doesn’t always have to drive the interaction. In a chat server, the client object would be the one to which”display text” messages were sent. In a board game server, this would provide a way to tell the clients that someone has made a move, so they can update their game boards.
#!/usr/bin/env python
# Copyright (c) Twisted Matrix Laboratories.
# See LICENSE for details.
from zope.interface import implements
from twisted.spread import pb
from twisted.cred import checkers, portal
from twisted.internet import reactor
class MyPerspective(pb.Avatar):
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def perspective_foo(self, arg):
print "I am", self.name, "perspective_foo(",arg,") called on", self
class MyRealm:
implements(portal.IRealm)
def requestAvatar(self, avatarId, mind, *interfaces):
if pb.IPerspective not in interfaces:
raise NotImplementedError
return pb.IPerspective, MyPerspective(avatarId), lambda:None
p = portal.Portal(MyRealm())
c = checkers.InMemoryUsernamePasswordDatabaseDontUse(user1="pass1",
user2="pass2")
p.registerChecker(c)
reactor.listenTCP(8800, pb.PBServerFactory(p))
reactor.run()
#!/usr/bin/env python
# Copyright (c) Twisted Matrix Laboratories.
# See LICENSE for details.
from twisted.spread import pb
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.cred import credentials
def main():
factory = pb.PBClientFactory()
reactor.connectTCP("localhost", 8800, factory)
def1 = factory.login(credentials.UsernamePassword("user1", "pass1"))
def1.addCallback(connected)
reactor.run()
def connected(perspective):
print "got perspective1 ref:", perspective
print "asking it to foo(13)"
perspective.callRemote("foo", 13)
main()
#!/usr/bin/env python
# Copyright (c) Twisted Matrix Laboratories.
# See LICENSE for details.
from twisted.spread import pb
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.spread import pb
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.cred import credentials
def main():
factory = pb.PBClientFactory()
reactor.connectTCP("localhost", 8800, factory)
def1 = factory.login(credentials.UsernamePassword("user2", "pass2"))
def1.addCallback(connected)
reactor.run()
def connected(perspective):
print "got perspective2 ref:", perspective
print "asking it to foo(14)"
perspective.callRemote("foo", 14)
main()
While pb6server.py is running, try starting pb6client1, then pb6client2. Compare the argument passed by the .callRemote() in each client. You can see how each client gets connected to a different Perspective.
Let’s walk through the previous example and see what was going on.
First, we created a subclass called MyPerspective which is our server-side Avatar. It implements a perspective_foo method that is exposed to the remote client.
Second, we created a realm (an object which implements IRealm , and therefore implements requestAvatar ). This realm manufactures MyPerspective objects. It makes as many as we want, and names each one with the avatarID (a username) that comes out of the checkers. This MyRealm object returns two other objects as well, which we will describe later.
Third, we created a portal to hold this realm. The portal’s job is to dispatch incoming clients to the credential checkers, and then to request Avatars for any which survive the authentication process.
Fourth, we made a simple checker (an object which implements IChecker ) to hold valid user/password pairs. The checker gets registered with the portal, so it knows who to ask when new clients connect. We use a checker named InMemoryUsernamePasswordDatabaseDontUse , which suggests that 1: all the username/password pairs are kept in memory instead of being saved to a database or something, and 2: you shouldn’t use it. The admonition against using it is because there are better schemes: keeping everything in memory will not work when you have thousands or millions of users to keep track of, the passwords will be stored in the .tap file when the application shuts down (possibly a security risk), and finally it is a nuisance to add or remove users after the checker is constructed.
Fifth, we create a pb.PBServerFactory to listen on a TCP port. This factory knows how to connect the remote client to the Portal, so incoming connections will be handed to the authentication process. Other protocols (non-PB) would do something similar: the factory that creates Protocol objects will give those objects access to the Portal so authentication can take place.
On the client side, a pb.PBClientFactory is created (as before ) and attached to a TCP connection. When the connection completes, the factory will be asked to produce a Protocol, and it will create a PB object. Unlike the previous chapter, where we used .getRootObject , here we use factory.login to initiate the cred authentication process. We provide a credentials object, which is the client-side agent for doing our half of the authentication process. This process may involve several messages: challenges, responses, encrypted passwords, secure hashes, etc. We give our credentials object everything it will need to respond correctly (in this case, a username and password, but you could write a credential that used public-key encryption or even fancier techniques).
login returns a Deferred which, when it fires, will return a pb.RemoteReference to the remote avatar. We can then do callRemote to invoke a perspective_foo method on that Avatar.
#!/usr/bin/env python
# Copyright (c) Twisted Matrix Laboratories.
# See LICENSE for details.
"""
Implement the realm for and run on port 8800 a PB service which allows both
anonymous and username/password based access.
Successful username/password-based login requests given an instance of
MyPerspective with a name which matches the username with which they
authenticated. Success anonymous login requests are given an instance of
MyPerspective with the name "Anonymous".
"""
from sys import stdout
from zope.interface import implements
from twisted.python.log import startLogging
from twisted.cred.checkers import ANONYMOUS, AllowAnonymousAccess
from twisted.cred.checkers import InMemoryUsernamePasswordDatabaseDontUse
from twisted.cred.portal import IRealm, Portal
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.spread.pb import Avatar, IPerspective, PBServerFactory
class MyPerspective(Avatar):
"""
Trivial avatar exposing a single remote method for demonstrative
purposes. All successful login attempts in this example will result in
an avatar which is an instance of this class.
@type name: C{str}
@ivar name: The username which was used during login or C{"Anonymous"}
if the login was anonymous (a real service might want to avoid the
collision this introduces between anonoymous users and authenticated
users named "Anonymous").
"""
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def perspective_foo(self, arg):
"""
Print a simple message which gives the argument this method was
called with and this avatar's name.
"""
print "I am %s. perspective_foo(%s) called on %s." % (
self.name, arg, self)
class MyRealm(object):
"""
Trivial realm which supports anonymous and named users by creating
avatars which are instances of MyPerspective for either.
"""
implements(IRealm)
def requestAvatar(self, avatarId, mind, *interfaces):
if IPerspective not in interfaces:
raise NotImplementedError("MyRealm only handles IPerspective")
if avatarId is ANONYMOUS:
avatarId = "Anonymous"
return IPerspective, MyPerspective(avatarId), lambda: None
def main():
"""
Create a PB server using MyRealm and run it on port 8800.
"""
startLogging(stdout)
p = Portal(MyRealm())
# Here the username/password checker is registered.
c1 = InMemoryUsernamePasswordDatabaseDontUse(user1="pass1", user2="pass2")
p.registerChecker(c1)
# Here the anonymous checker is registered.
c2 = AllowAnonymousAccess()
p.registerChecker(c2)
reactor.listenTCP(8800, PBServerFactory(p))
reactor.run()
if __name__ == '__main__':
main()
#!/usr/bin/env python
# Copyright (c) Twisted Matrix Laboratories.
# See LICENSE for details.
"""
Client which will talk to the server run by pbAnonServer.py, logging in
either anonymously or with username/password credentials.
"""
from sys import stdout
from twisted.python.log import err, startLogging
from twisted.cred.credentials import Anonymous, UsernamePassword
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.internet.defer import gatherResults
from twisted.spread.pb import PBClientFactory
def error(why, msg):
"""
Catch-all errback which simply logs the failure. This isn't expected to
be invoked in the normal case for this example.
"""
err(why, msg)
def connected(perspective):
"""
Login callback which invokes the remote "foo" method on the perspective
which the server returned.
"""
print "got perspective1 ref:", perspective
print "asking it to foo(13)"
return perspective.callRemote("foo", 13)
def finished(ignored):
"""
Callback invoked when both logins and method calls have finished to shut
down the reactor so the example exits.
"""
reactor.stop()
def main():
"""
Connect to a PB server running on port 8800 on localhost and log in to
it, both anonymously and using a username/password it will recognize.
"""
startLogging(stdout)
factory = PBClientFactory()
reactor.connectTCP("localhost", 8800, factory)
anonymousLogin = factory.login(Anonymous())
anonymousLogin.addCallback(connected)
anonymousLogin.addErrback(error, "Anonymous login failed")
usernameLogin = factory.login(UsernamePassword("user1", "pass1"))
usernameLogin.addCallback(connected)
usernameLogin.addErrback(error, "Username/password login failed")
bothDeferreds = gatherResults([anonymousLogin, usernameLogin])
bothDeferreds.addCallback(finished)
reactor.run()
if __name__ == '__main__':
main()
pbAnonServer.py implements a server based on pb6server.py, extending it to permit anonymous logins in addition to authenticated logins. An AllowAnonymousAccess checker and an InMemoryUsernamePasswordDatabaseDontUse checker are registered and the client’s choice of credentials object determines which is used to authenticate the login. In either case, the realm will be called on to create an avatar for the login. AllowAnonymousAccess always produces an avatarId of twisted.cred.checkers.ANONYMOUS .
On the client side, the only change is the use of an instance of Anonymous when calling PBClientFactory.login .
The first element of the 3-tuple returned by requestAvatar indicates which Interface this Avatar implements. For PB avatars, it will always be pb.IPerspective , because that’s the only interface these avatars implement.
This element is present because requestAvatar is actually presented with a list of possible Interfaces. The question being posed to the Realm is: “do you have an avatar for (avatarID) that can implement one of the following set of Interfaces?” . Some portals and checkers might give a list of Interfaces and the Realm could pick; the PB code only knows how to do one, so we cannot take advantage of this feature.
The third element of the 3-tuple is a zero-argument callable, which will be invoked by the protocol when the connection has been lost. We can use this to notify the Avatar when the client has lost its connection. This will be described in more detail below.
In the example above, we create Avatars upon request, during requestAvatar . Depending upon the service, these Avatars might already exist before the connection is received, and might outlive the connection. The Avatars might also accept multiple connections.
Another possibility is that the Avatars might exist ahead of time, but in a different form (frozen in a pickle and/or saved in a database). In this case, requestAvatar may need to perform a database lookup and then do something with the result before it can provide an avatar. In this case, it would probably return a Deferred so it could provide the real Avatar later, once the lookup had completed.
Here are some possible implementations of MyRealm.requestAvatar :
# pre-existing, static avatars
def requestAvatar(self, avatarID, mind, *interfaces):
assert pb.IPerspective in interfaces
avatar = self.avatars[avatarID]
return pb.IPerspective, avatar, lambda:None
# database lookup and unpickling
def requestAvatar(self, avatarID, mind, *interfaces):
assert pb.IPerspective in interfaces
d = self.database.fetchAvatar(avatarID)
d.addCallback(self.doUnpickle)
return pb.IPerspective, d, lambda:None
def doUnpickle(self, pickled):
avatar = pickle.loads(pickled)
return avatar
# everybody shares the same Avatar
def requestAvatar(self, avatarID, mind, *interfaces):
assert pb.IPerspective in interfaces
return pb.IPerspective, self.theOneAvatar, lambda:None
# anonymous users share one Avatar, named users each get their own
def requestAvatar(self, avatarID, mind, *interfaces):
assert pb.IPerspective in interfaces
if avatarID == checkers.ANONYMOUS:
return pb.IPerspective, self.anonAvatar, lambda:None
else:
return pb.IPerspective, self.avatars[avatarID], lambda:None
# anonymous users get independent (but temporary) Avatars
# named users get their own persistent one
def requestAvatar(self, avatarID, mind, *interfaces):
assert pb.IPerspective in interfaces
if avatarID == checkers.ANONYMOUS:
return pb.IPerspective, MyAvatar(), lambda:None
else:
return pb.IPerspective, self.avatars[avatarID], lambda:None
The last example, note that the new MyAvatar instance is not saved anywhere: it will vanish when the connection is dropped. By contrast, the avatars that live in the self.avatars dictionary will probably get persisted into the .tap file along with the Realm, the Portal, and anything else that is referenced by the top-level Application object. This is an easy way to manage saved user profiles.
It may be useful for your Avatars to be told when remote clients gain (and lose) access to them. For example, and Avatar might be updated by something in the server, and if there are clients attached, it should update them (through the “mind” argument which lets the Avatar do callRemote on the client).
One common idiom which accomplishes this is to have the Realm tell the avatar that a remote client has just attached. The Realm can also ask the protocol to let it know when the connection goes away, so it can then inform the Avatar that the client has detached. The third member of the requestAvatar return tuple is a callable which will be invoked when the connection is lost.
class MyPerspective(pb.Avatar):
def __init__(self):
self.clients = []
def attached(self, mind):
self.clients.append(mind)
print "attached to", mind
def detached(self, mind):
self.clients.remove(mind)
print "detached from", mind
def update(self, message):
for c in self.clients:
c.callRemote("update", message)
class MyRealm:
def requestAvatar(self, avatarID, mind, *interfaces):
assert pb.IPerspective in interfaces
avatar = self.avatars[avatarID]
avatar.attached(mind)
return pb.IPerspective, avatar, lambda a=avatar:a.detached(mind)
Once you have IPerspective objects (i.e. the Avatar) to represent users, the Viewable class can come into play. This class behaves a lot like Referenceable : it turns into a RemoteReference when sent over the wire, and certain methods can be invoked by the holder of that reference. However, the methods that can be called have names that start with view_ instead of remote_ , and those methods are always called with an extra perspective argument that points to the Avatar through which the reference was sent:
class Foo(pb.Viewable):
def view_doFoo(self, perspective, arg1, arg2):
pass
This is useful if you want to let multiple clients share a reference to the same object. The view_ methods can use the “perspective” argument to figure out which client is calling them. This gives them a way to do additional permission checks, do per-user accounting, etc.
This is the shortcut which makes per-user-per-group capability objects much easier to use. Instead of creating such per-(user,group) objects, you just have per-group objects which inherit from pb.Viewable , and give the user references to them. The local pb.Avatar object will automatically show up as the “perspective” argument in the view_* method calls, give you a chance to involve the Avatar in the process.
Combining all the above techniques, here is an example chat server which uses a fixed set of identities (say, for the three members of your bridge club, who hang out in “#NeedAFourth” hoping that someone will discover your server, guess somebody’s password, break in, join the group, and also be available for a game next saturday afternoon).
#!/usr/bin/env python
# Copyright (c) Twisted Matrix Laboratories.
# See LICENSE for details.
from zope.interface import implements
from twisted.cred import portal, checkers
from twisted.spread import pb
from twisted.internet import reactor
class ChatServer:
def __init__(self):
self.groups = {} # indexed by name
def joinGroup(self, groupname, user, allowMattress):
if groupname not in self.groups:
self.groups[groupname] = Group(groupname, allowMattress)
self.groups[groupname].addUser(user)
return self.groups[groupname]
class ChatRealm:
implements(portal.IRealm)
def requestAvatar(self, avatarID, mind, *interfaces):
assert pb.IPerspective in interfaces
avatar = User(avatarID)
avatar.server = self.server
avatar.attached(mind)
return pb.IPerspective, avatar, lambda a=avatar:a.detached(mind)
class User(pb.Avatar):
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def attached(self, mind):
self.remote = mind
def detached(self, mind):
self.remote = None
def perspective_joinGroup(self, groupname, allowMattress=True):
return self.server.joinGroup(groupname, self, allowMattress)
def send(self, message):
self.remote.callRemote("print", message)
class Group(pb.Viewable):
def __init__(self, groupname, allowMattress):
self.name = groupname
self.allowMattress = allowMattress
self.users = []
def addUser(self, user):
self.users.append(user)
def view_send(self, from_user, message):
if not self.allowMattress and "mattress" in message:
raise ValueError, "Don't say that word"
for user in self.users:
user.send("<%s> says: %s" % (from_user.name, message))
realm = ChatRealm()
realm.server = ChatServer()
checker = checkers.InMemoryUsernamePasswordDatabaseDontUse()
checker.addUser("alice", "1234")
checker.addUser("bob", "secret")
checker.addUser("carol", "fido")
p = portal.Portal(realm, [checker])
reactor.listenTCP(8800, pb.PBServerFactory(p))
reactor.run()
Notice that the client uses perspective_joinGroup to both join a group and retrieve a RemoteReference to the Group object. However, the reference they get is actually to a special intermediate object called a pb.ViewPoint . When they do group.callRemote("send", "message") , their avatar is inserted into the argument list that Group.view_send actually sees. This lets the group get their username out of the Avatar without giving the client an opportunity to spoof someone else.
The client side code that joins a group and sends a message would look like this:
#!/usr/bin/env python
# Copyright (c) Twisted Matrix Laboratories.
# See LICENSE for details.
from twisted.spread import pb
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.cred import credentials
class Client(pb.Referenceable):
def remote_print(self, message):
print message
def connect(self):
factory = pb.PBClientFactory()
reactor.connectTCP("localhost", 8800, factory)
def1 = factory.login(credentials.UsernamePassword("alice", "1234"),
client=self)
def1.addCallback(self.connected)
reactor.run()
def connected(self, perspective):
print "connected, joining group #NeedAFourth"
# this perspective is a reference to our User object. Save a reference
# to it here, otherwise it will get garbage collected after this call,
# and the server will think we logged out.
self.perspective = perspective
d = perspective.callRemote("joinGroup", "#NeedAFourth")
d.addCallback(self.gotGroup)
def gotGroup(self, group):
print "joined group, now sending a message to all members"
# 'group' is a reference to the Group object (through a ViewPoint)
d = group.callRemote("send", "You can call me Al.")
d.addCallback(self.shutdown)
def shutdown(self, result):
reactor.stop()
Client().connect()
Footnotes
| [1] | Apparently Alice is one of those weirdos who has nothing better to do than to try and impersonate Bob. She will lie to her chat client, send incorrect objects to remote methods, even rewrite her local client code entirely to accomplish this juvenile prank. Given this adversarial relationship, one must wonder why she and Bob seem to spend so much time together: their adventures are clearly documented by the cryptographic literature. |
| [2] | The obvious name is clearly ServerSidePerUserObjectWhichNobodyElseHasAccessTo , but because Python makes everything else so easy to read, it only seems fair to make your audience work for something . |
| [3] | We could just go ahead and rename Perspective Broker to be Avatar Broker, but 1) that would cause massive compatibility problems, and 2) “AB” doesn’t fit into the whole sandwich-themed naming scheme nearly as well as “PB” does. If we changed it to AB, we’d probably have to change Banana to be CD (CoderDecoder), and Jelly to be EF (EncapsulatorFragmentor). twisted.spread would then have to be renamed twisted.alphabetsoup, and then the whole food-pun thing would start all over again. |
| [4] | The avatar-ish class is named pb.Avatar because pb.Perspective was already taken, by the (now obsolete) oldcred perspective-ish class. It is a pity, but it simply wasn’t possible both replace pb.Perspective in-place and maintain a reasonable level of backwards-compatibility. |