This document describes how to use the HTTP client included in Twisted Web. After reading it, you should be able to make HTTP and HTTPS requests using Twisted Web. You will be able to specify the request method, headers, and body and you will be able to retrieve the response code, headers, and body.
A number of higher-level features are also explained, including proxying, automatic content encoding negotiation, and cookie handling.
This document assumes that you are familiar with Deferreds and Failures , and producers and consumers . It also assumes you are familiar with the basic concepts of HTTP, such as requests and responses, methods, headers, and message bodies. The HTTPS section of this document also assumes you are somewhat familiar with SSL and have read about using SSL in Twisted .
The twisted.web.client.Agent class is the entry point into the client API. Requests are issued using the request method, which takes as parameters a request method, a request URI, the request headers, and an object which can produce the request body (if there is to be one). The agent is responsible for connection setup. Because of this, it requires a reactor as an argument to its initializer. An example of creating an agent and issuing a request using it might look like this:
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.web.client import Agent
from twisted.web.http_headers import Headers
agent = Agent(reactor)
d = agent.request(
'GET',
'http://example.com/',
Headers({'User-Agent': ['Twisted Web Client Example']}),
None)
def cbResponse(ignored):
print 'Response received'
d.addCallback(cbResponse)
def cbShutdown(ignored):
reactor.stop()
d.addBoth(cbShutdown)
reactor.run()
As may be obvious, this issues a new GET request for / to the web server on example.com . Agent is responsible for resolving the hostname into an IP address and connecting to it on port 80 (for HTTP URIs), port 443 (for HTTPS URIs), or on the port number specified in the URI itself. It is also responsible for cleaning up the connection afterwards. This code sends a request which includes one custom header, User-Agent . The last argument passed to Agent.request is None , though, so the request has no body.
Sending a request which does include a body requires passing an object providing twisted.web.iweb.IBodyProducer to Agent.request . This interface extends the more general IPushProducer by adding a new length attribute and adding several constraints to the way the producer and consumer interact.
For additional details about the requirements of IBodyProducer implementations, see the API documentation.
Here’s a simple IBodyProducer implementation which writes an in-memory string to the consumer:
from zope.interface import implements
from twisted.internet.defer import succeed
from twisted.web.iweb import IBodyProducer
class StringProducer(object):
implements(IBodyProducer)
def __init__(self, body):
self.body = body
self.length = len(body)
def startProducing(self, consumer):
consumer.write(self.body)
return succeed(None)
def pauseProducing(self):
pass
def stopProducing(self):
pass
This producer can be used to issue a request with a body:
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.web.client import Agent
from twisted.web.http_headers import Headers
from stringprod import StringProducer
agent = Agent(reactor)
body = StringProducer("hello, world")
d = agent.request(
'GET',
'http://example.com/',
Headers({'User-Agent': ['Twisted Web Client Example'],
'Content-Type': ['text/x-greeting']}),
body)
def cbResponse(ignored):
print 'Response received'
d.addCallback(cbResponse)
def cbShutdown(ignored):
reactor.stop()
d.addBoth(cbShutdown)
reactor.run()
If you want to upload a file or you just have some data in a string, you don’t have to copy StringProducer though. Instead, you can use FileBodyProducer . This IBodyProducer implementation works with any file-like object (so use it with a StringIO if your upload data is already in memory as a string); the idea is the same as StringProducer from the previous example, but with a little extra code to only send data as fast as the server will take it.
from StringIO import StringIO
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.web.client import Agent
from twisted.web.http_headers import Headers
from twisted.web.client import FileBodyProducer
agent = Agent(reactor)
body = FileBodyProducer(StringIO("hello, world"))
d = agent.request(
'GET',
'http://example.com/',
Headers({'User-Agent': ['Twisted Web Client Example'],
'Content-Type': ['text/x-greeting']}),
body)
def cbResponse(ignored):
print 'Response received'
d.addCallback(cbResponse)
def cbShutdown(ignored):
reactor.stop()
d.addBoth(cbShutdown)
reactor.run()
FileBodyProducer closes the file when it no longer needs it.
If the connection or the request take too much time, you can cancel the Deferred returned by the Agent.request method. This will abort the connection, and the Deferred will errback with CancelledError .
So far, the examples have demonstrated how to issue a request. However, they have ignored the response, except for showing that it is a Deferred which seems to fire when the response has been received. Next we’ll cover what that response is and how to interpret it.
Agent.request , as with most Deferred -returning APIs, can return a Deferred which fires with a Failure . If the request fails somehow, this will be reflected with a failure. This may be due to a problem looking up the host IP address, or it may be because the HTTP server is not accepting connections, or it may be because of a problem parsing the response, or any other problem which arises which prevents the response from being received. It does not include responses with an error status.
If the request succeeds, though, the Deferred will fire with a Response . This happens as soon as all the response headers have been received. It happens before any of the response body, if there is one, is processed. The Response object has several attributes giving the response information: its code, version, phrase, and headers, as well as the length of the body to expect. In addition to these, the Response also contains a reference to the request that it is a response to; one particularly useful attribute on the request is absoluteURI : The absolute URI to which the request was made. The Response object has a method which makes the response body available: deliverBody . Using the attributes of the response object and this method, here’s an example which displays part of the response to a request:
from pprint import pformat
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred
from twisted.internet.protocol import Protocol
from twisted.web.client import Agent
from twisted.web.http_headers import Headers
class BeginningPrinter(Protocol):
def __init__(self, finished):
self.finished = finished
self.remaining = 1024 * 10
def dataReceived(self, bytes):
if self.remaining:
display = bytes[:self.remaining]
print 'Some data received:'
print display
self.remaining -= len(display)
def connectionLost(self, reason):
print 'Finished receiving body:', reason.getErrorMessage()
self.finished.callback(None)
agent = Agent(reactor)
d = agent.request(
'GET',
'http://example.com/',
Headers({'User-Agent': ['Twisted Web Client Example']}),
None)
def cbRequest(response):
print 'Response version:', response.version
print 'Response code:', response.code
print 'Response phrase:', response.phrase
print 'Response headers:'
print pformat(list(response.headers.getAllRawHeaders()))
finished = Deferred()
response.deliverBody(BeginningPrinter(finished))
return finished
d.addCallback(cbRequest)
def cbShutdown(ignored):
reactor.stop()
d.addBoth(cbShutdown)
reactor.run()
The BeginningPrinter protocol in this example is passed to Response.deliverBody and the response body is then delivered to its dataReceived method as it arrives. When the body has been completely delivered, the protocol’s connectionLost method is called. It is important to inspect the Failure passed to connectionLost . If the response body has been completely received, the failure will wrap a twisted.web.client.ResponseDone exception. This indicates that it is known that all data has been received. It is also possible for the failure to wrap a twisted.web.http.PotentialDataLoss exception: this indicates that the server framed the response such that there is no way to know when the entire response body has been received. Only HTTP/1.0 servers should behave this way. Finally, it is possible for the exception to be of another type, indicating guaranteed data loss for some reason (a lost connection, a memory error, etc).
Just as protocols associated with a TCP connection are given a transport, so will be a protocol passed to deliverBody . Since it makes no sense to write more data to the connection at this stage of the request, though, the transport only provides IPushProducer . This allows the protocol to control the flow of the response data: a call to the transport’s pauseProducing method will pause delivery; a later call to resumeProducing will resume it. If it is decided that the rest of the response body is not desired, stopProducing can be used to stop delivery permanently; after this, the protocol’s connectionLost method will be called.
An important thing to keep in mind is that the body will only be read from the connection after Response.deliverBody is called. This also means that the connection will remain open until this is done (and the body read). So, in general, any response with a body must have that body read using deliverBody . If the application is not interested in the body, it should issue a HEAD request or use a protocol which immediately calls stopProducing on its transport.
If the body of the response isn’t going to be consumed incrementally, then readBody can be used to get the body as a byte-string. This function returns a Deferred that fires with the body after the request has been completed.
from sys import argv
from pprint import pformat
from twisted.internet.task import react
from twisted.web.client import Agent, readBody
from twisted.web.http_headers import Headers
def cbRequest(response):
print 'Response version:', response.version
print 'Response code:', response.code
print 'Response phrase:', response.phrase
print 'Response headers:'
print pformat(list(response.headers.getAllRawHeaders()))
d = readBody(response)
d.addCallback(cbBody)
return d
def cbBody(body):
print 'Response body:'
print body
def main(reactor, url=b"http://example.com/"):
agent = Agent(reactor)
d = agent.request(
'GET', url,
Headers({'User-Agent': ['Twisted Web Client Example']}),
None)
d.addCallback(cbRequest)
return d
react(main, argv[1:])
Everything you’ve read so far applies whether the scheme of the request URI is HTTP or HTTPS . However, to control the SSL negotiation performed when an HTTPS URI is requested, there’s one extra object to pay attention to: the SSL context factory.
Agent ‘s constructor takes an optional second argument, a context factory. This is an object like the context factory described in Using SSL in Twisted but has one small difference. The getContext method of this factory accepts the address from the URL being requested. This allows it to return a context object which verifies that the server’s certificate matches the URL being requested.
Here’s an example which shows how to use Agent to request an HTTPS URL with no certificate verification.
from twisted.python.log import err
from twisted.web.client import Agent
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.internet.ssl import ClientContextFactory
class WebClientContextFactory(ClientContextFactory):
def getContext(self, hostname, port):
return ClientContextFactory.getContext(self)
def display(response):
print "Received response"
print response
def main():
contextFactory = WebClientContextFactory()
agent = Agent(reactor, contextFactory)
d = agent.request("GET", "https://example.com/")
d.addCallbacks(display, err)
d.addCallback(lambda ignored: reactor.stop())
reactor.run()
if __name__ == "__main__":
main()
The important point to notice here is that getContext now accepts two arguments, a hostname and a port number. These two arguments, a str and an int , give the address to which a connection is being established to request an HTTPS URL. Because an agent might make multiple requests over a single connection, getContext may not be called once for each request. A second or later request for a URL with the same hostname as a previous request may re-use an existing connection, and therefore will re-use the previously returned context object.
To configure SSL options or enable certificate verification or hostname checking, provide a context factory which creates suitably configured context objects.
HTTP persistent connections use the same TCP connection to send and receive multiple HTTP requests/responses. This reduces latency and TCP connection establishment overhead.
The constructor of twisted.web.client.Agent takes an optional parameter pool, which should be an instance of HTTPConnectionPool , which will be used to manage the connections. If the pool is created with the parameter persistent set to True (the default), it will not close connections when the request is done, and instead hold them in its cache to be re-used.
Here’s an example which sends requests over a persistent connection:
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred, DeferredList
from twisted.internet.protocol import Protocol
from twisted.web.client import Agent, HTTPConnectionPool
class IgnoreBody(Protocol):
def __init__(self, deferred):
self.deferred = deferred
def dataReceived(self, bytes):
pass
def connectionLost(self, reason):
self.deferred.callback(None)
def cbRequest(response):
print 'Response code:', response.code
finished = Deferred()
response.deliverBody(IgnoreBody(finished))
return finished
pool = HTTPConnectionPool(reactor)
agent = Agent(reactor, pool=pool)
def requestGet(url):
d = agent.request('GET', url)
d.addCallback(cbRequest)
return d
# Two requests to the same host:
d = requestGet('http://localhost:8080/foo').addCallback(
lambda ign: requestGet("http://localhost:8080/bar"))
def cbShutdown(ignored):
reactor.stop()
d.addCallback(cbShutdown)
reactor.run()
Here, the two requests are to the same host, one after the each other. In most cases, the same connection will be used for the second request, instead of two different connections when using a non-persistent pool.
twisted.web.client.HTTPConnectionPool instances have an attribute called maxPersistentPerHost which limits the number of cached persistent connections to the same server. The default value is 2. This is effective only when the persistent option is True. You can change the value like bellow:
from twisted.web.client import HTTPConnectionPool
pool = HTTPConnectionPool(reactor, persistent=True)
pool.maxPersistentPerHost = 1
With the default value of 2, the pool keeps around two connections to the same host at most. Eventually the cached persistent connections will be closed, by default after 240 seconds; you can change this timeout value with the cachedConnectionTimeout attribute of the pool. To force all connections to close use the closeCachedConnections method.
If a request fails without getting a response, and the request is something that hopefully can be retried without having any side-effects (e.g. a request with method GET), it will be retried automatically when sending a request over a previously-cached persistent connection. You can disable this behavior by setting retryAutomatically to False . Note that each request will only be retried once.
By itself, Agent doesn’t follow HTTP redirects (responses with 301, 302, 303, 307 status codes and a location header field). You need to use the twisted.web.client.RedirectAgent class to do so. It implements a rather strict behavior of the RFC, meaning it will redirect 301 and 302 as 307, only on GET and HEAD requests.
The following example shows how to have a redirect-enabled agent.
from twisted.python.log import err
from twisted.web.client import Agent, RedirectAgent
from twisted.internet import reactor
def display(response):
print "Received response"
print response
def main():
agent = RedirectAgent(Agent(reactor))
d = agent.request("GET", "http://example.com/")
d.addCallbacks(display, err)
d.addCallback(lambda ignored: reactor.stop())
reactor.run()
if __name__ == "__main__":
main()
In contrast, twisted.web.client.BrowserLikeRedirectAgent implements more lenient behaviour that closely emulates what web browsers do; in other words 301 and 302 POST redirects are treated like 303, meaning the method is changed to GET before making the redirect request.
As mentioned previously, Response contains a reference to both the request that it is a response to, and the previously received response , accessible by previousResponse . In most cases there will not be a previous response, but in the case of RedirectAgent the response history can be obtained by following the previous responses from response to response.
To be able to use HTTP proxies with an agent, you can use the twisted.web.client.ProxyAgent class. It supports the same interface as Agent , but takes the endpoint of the proxy as initializer argument.
Here’s an example demonstrating the use of an HTTP proxy running on localhost:8000.
from twisted.python.log import err
from twisted.web.client import ProxyAgent
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.internet.endpoints import TCP4ClientEndpoint
def display(response):
print "Received response"
print response
def main():
endpoint = TCP4ClientEndpoint(reactor, "localhost", 8000)
agent = ProxyAgent(endpoint)
d = agent.request("GET", "https://example.com/")
d.addCallbacks(display, err)
d.addCallback(lambda ignored: reactor.stop())
reactor.run()
if __name__ == "__main__":
main()
Please refer to the endpoints documentation for more information about how they work and the twisted.internet.endpoints API documentation to learn what other kinds of endpoints exist.
An existing agent instance can be wrapped with twisted.web.client.CookieAgent to automatically store, send and track HTTP cookies. A CookieJar instance, from the Python standard library module cookielib , is used to store the cookie information. An example of using CookieAgent to perform a request and display the collected cookies might look like this:
from cookielib import CookieJar
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.python import log
from twisted.web.client import Agent, CookieAgent
def displayCookies(response, cookieJar):
print 'Received response'
print response
print 'Cookies:', len(cookieJar)
for cookie in cookieJar:
print cookie
def main():
cookieJar = CookieJar()
agent = CookieAgent(Agent(reactor), cookieJar)
d = agent.request('GET', 'http://www.google.com/')
d.addCallback(displayCookies, cookieJar)
d.addErrback(log.err)
d.addCallback(lambda ignored: reactor.stop())
reactor.run()
if __name__ == "__main__":
main()
twisted.web.client.ContentDecoderAgent adds support for sending Accept-Encoding request headers and interpreting Content-Encoding response headers. These headers allow the server to encode the response body somehow, typically with some compression scheme to save on transfer costs. ContentDecoderAgent provides this functionality as a wrapper around an existing agent instance. Together with one or more decoder objects (such as twisted.web.client.GzipDecoder ), this wrapper automatically negotiates an encoding to use and decodes the response body accordingly. To application code using such an agent, there is no visible difference in the data delivered.
from twisted.python import log
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred
from twisted.internet.protocol import Protocol
from twisted.web.client import Agent, ContentDecoderAgent, GzipDecoder
class BeginningPrinter(Protocol):
def __init__(self, finished):
self.finished = finished
self.remaining = 1024 * 10
def dataReceived(self, bytes):
if self.remaining:
display = bytes[:self.remaining]
print 'Some data received:'
print display
self.remaining -= len(display)
def connectionLost(self, reason):
print 'Finished receiving body:', reason.type, reason.value
self.finished.callback(None)
def printBody(response):
finished = Deferred()
response.deliverBody(BeginningPrinter(finished))
return finished
def main():
agent = ContentDecoderAgent(Agent(reactor), [('gzip', GzipDecoder)])
d = agent.request('GET', 'http://www.yahoo.com/')
d.addCallback(printBody)
d.addErrback(log.err)
d.addCallback(lambda ignored: reactor.stop())
reactor.run()
if __name__ == "__main__":
main()
Implementing support for new content encodings is as simple as writing a new class like GzipDecoder that can decode a response using the new encoding. As there are not many content encodings in widespread use, gzip is the only encoding supported by Twisted itself.
You should now understand the basics of the Twisted Web HTTP client. In particular, you should understand: